Political Inquiry Terms and Definitions

Research Design * Good inquiry, bad research * Involves connecting scheme and entropy. * Maximising leverage by use very few changeables to explain many personalized effects. * Reports on the head of authenticty of results. * Shows true causal relationship, non just correlation coefficient. * Provides accu localize data and accounts for sepa graze variables. * Determines if the relationship is unidirectional. * Purpose of research * To establish a relationship between two or more variables * To demonstrate that the results are gener eithery true in the real world and not in just a particular context. To reveal whether one phenomenon precedes an otherwise in time, establish time sound out * To ward off as many alternative explanations for the observed finding as executable * Choice of design * What affects * Is research exploratory, descriptive or explanatory * What are the applicatory limitations in investigating hypothesis. * experimental design * Classical experime ntal design, 2 root words, pre and post scrutiny, randomisation, * Simple post test only post test * iterate sum design, measure how long effect takes to start. Multiple pre and post tests. Multi meeting design, more than 2 groups, poop compare different levels of experimental variable. * Randomised Field experiments, applies system of logic of randomisation and variable manipulation * Non-randomised quasi-experiments. Purposeful selection, target a certain group. * Non-experimental design single group, no authority over designation and application of IV, softness to measure DV. * Case subject small N designs. Provide detailed explanation * Comparative compend compare two or several units in relative detail * Focus group gather information to the highest degree reaction to certain IV. Surveys large number of people measured to find causal relationships. * Aggregate data analysis variables are averages or percentages of geographical areas, find causal relationships. * Lon gitudinal designs, time span. * Trend analysis measurement on equivalent variables at different time periods to examine changes. * Panel analysis follows a group of participants. * Intervention analysis measurement of change in the DV is observed and taken before and after. No interaction, mere observation. * Ethnographies form of data collection through and through participant observation, inter clears and interrogationnaires.Field studies * Content analysis textual analysis, study of recordings, written. * What they learn in habitual * They all share the basic objectives of research design despite having different levels of internal and external lustiness. Using several designs together allow for cover each(prenominal) others shortfall. * They all attempt to draw sound conclusions supported by observable evidence * Terms * Causal vs spurious * Both intend correlation between IV and DV, nevertheless in spurious the change in DV because 3rd factor caused changed in almos t(prenominal). Causal is a direct relationship. 5 different relationships. Multiple causes without chain.Multiple causes with chain. Multiple causes that affect DV, but are changed with the introduction of another variable. Spurious causality with antecedent variable. Chain causality with intervening variable. * Co conversion * Demonstrates that the IV does in fact covary with DV. Not causal relationship yet. * Time order * Show that the IV precedes DV. Effect cannot appear before cause. * Alternative causes * Confounding factors. Factors that possible cause a change in DV as well. * Randomised controlled experiments * Experiments that allow the researcher to control the exposure to the IV through assignments to groups.Selection and grouping all randomised. * Experimental design * The way in which the researcher controls exposure to test IV. 5 different designs. * Control group * The group of subjects that does not receive experimental discussion or test stimulus. * Pre-test * Meas urement of the DV prior to administration of IV or experimental treatment. * Post test * Measurement of the DV after administration. * Internal vs external validity * Internal validity is the ability to show that manipulation or variation of the IV real causes change in DV. * External validity is the ability to mouth from one set of research findings to other situations. History * A threat to internal validity. Events other than the experimental stimulus that occur between pretest and posttest measurements. * Along with exploitation * Testing * When measuring the DV prior to the stimulus alerts the subjects of the research objectives. * Selection bias * Bias due to the assignment of subjects to experimental and control groups according to some measurement and not haphazard. A threat to internal validity. * Experimental mortality * A differential loss of subjects from experimental and control groups that affects the equivalency of groups threat to internal validity * prick deca y A change in the instrument used to measure the DV, like different researcher conducting pretest and posttest. * Demand marks * Aspects of the research situation that cause participants to cogitate at the investigators goals and adjust their behaviour or opinions accordingly. Trying to help. * Simple post test * Similar to classical. Experimental group exposed but control not, only post test is conducted. * Repeated measure design * Contains several pre and post test measurements to know simply how quickly the effect of the independent variable should be observed or how bona fide pretest measurement of DV should be taken. Multi-group design * There are more than one experimental r control group created so different levels of the IV can be compared. Can involve both pre and post test or just one. * Field experiments * They are experimental designs that are applied in a natural setting. Adopts logic of randomisation and variable manipulation. * Non-experimental design * They are designs that do not follow the experimental fashion model of two groups and have controlled exposure to IV. They are more practical to do but are not as blotto in terms of establishing causal relationships. * Case study * Comprehensive and in depth study of a single case or several cases.Provide detailed explanations * Comparative analysis * analyze between two or several units in relative detail * Focus group * Often use to observe reactions to the introduction of the IV. Has a group of people who meet at a single location * Surveys * Measurement of DV and IV at the kindred time. Respondents report their exposure to various factors. No assignment to groups, examines groups basd on grades of IV, measurement of DV to correspond differences between groups. * Aggregate data analysis * variable stars that are displayed as averages or percentages, to find causality. Trend analysis and longitudinal design * Measurements on same variables at different time periods to see the changes caused by the IV on the DV. No manipulation of variables. Multiple measurements. * Panel study * A study that follows a group of participants where the same units are measured at different times. * Panel mortality * Refers to the participants in the panel study who confound out. Rate? * Intervention analysis. * Looks at the occurrence of the IV as an observation. Looking at the DV before and after IV. Works best when IV happens in a brief period in time and brief in nature.Measure only before and after event. Literature Review * Purpose of Literature review, 7 * To see what has and has not been investigated * To cultivate general explanations for observed variations in a behaviour or a phenomenon * To happen upon potential relationships between concepts and to identify researchable hypothesis * To notice how others have defined and measured key concepts * To identify data sources that other researches have used * To develop alternative research designs * To discover how a resear ch project is related to the cast of others. * What constitutes a literature review It is made of different relevant articles that provide more insight into topic * It should help enter at a good research topic * It should show what has and has not been researched * It provides a general explanation for variations in behaviour or phenomenon * It identifies researchable topics * It should help develop alternative research designs * scoop up methods for collecting literature * Using electronic data originations like JSTOR, Web of Science and Google Scholar. * Searching by topic and key words, lento limiting results, read the articles and find new words to narrow down the search. Searching by starting with a single article. Use data base to find more relevant articles or other articles written by the same author. Use the citations in that first article. Find articles that have cited the first article. * Best ways to write a literature review * It should rely on scholarly sources * It must relate directly to topic * move over to become well-known(prenominal) with as much of the research before selecting the final sources. * Summarising of relevant literature that focuses on over-arching topics rather than single articles. * Compiling all articles into something that makes sense. * Organising the topics ased upon the research question. * Identifying common themes or methodologies across the articles. * Discussion of conventional wisdom, illustrating how current politics has changed and identifying the flaws in past research. Sampling * Terms * Population * all case or observations covered by a hypothesis, all the units of analysis to which a hypothesis applies. * Sample * A subset of observations or cases drawn from a specified nation. * Sample statistics * The estimator of a population qualitys or attribute that is calculated from audition data * Advantages and disadvantages of try outs Advantages * It is cheaper and little time consuming as compared to using population * More convenient. * Disadvantages * They can be less accurate or more prone to hallucination * Some studies do not use ingest, like case studies. * Population parameter * A characteristic or attribute of a population that can be quantified. * Estimator * A statistic based on test observations that is used to estimate the numerical value of an unknown population parameter. * Element * A particular case or entity about which information is collected, the unit of analysis. When to use a sample * Practicality. When data from an highly large population is required, it is impossible to interview or approach each and every subject. Thus sampling is require because although the sample statistics will not exactly equal the corresponding values, they will be reasonably close if sampling is done correctly. * Sampling frame * The particular population in which the sample is actually drawn from. * Random digit dial purpose of and how and why it works * It is a procedure use d to improve the representativeness of telephone amples by giving both heeled and unlisted numbers a chance of selection. * It is used to overcome the problem of cell phone numbers which are unlisted * It works by promiscuously dialling numbers. * It works because it gives all numbers, whether listed or not a chance to get dialled. * Sampling unit * The entity listed in a sampling frame. Maybe same as an element or group. * Sample bias * The bias that occurs whenever some elements of a population are systematically excluded from a sample. It is usually due to an incomplete sampling frame or a non-probability method of selecting elements. Probability sample types, pros and cons * Sample for which each element has a known probability of being included in the sample * Types * Simple random samples each element has an equal chance of being selected. * Pros each element has an equal chance of being selected. * Cons * It is not rightfully random, small patterns of selection might appea r. * Obtaining a list of the entire population is not possible, reducing the probability. * Systemic samples elements are selected from a list at influence intervals * Pros It is easier to apply than simple random. * Useful when dealing with a very large population size of it. * Cons * May result in biased sampling if elements on the list have been ranked according to a characteristic. The list contains a pattern that corresponds to the sampling interval. * Stratified samples elements sharing one or more characteristics are class and elements are selected from each group in symmetry to the groups representation in the total population * Pros * Homogeneous populations, smaller sample reach is needed to achieve accuracy. * Cons Heterogeneous populations need a much larger sample to be accurate. * Proportionate samples stratified samples where each stratum is represented in proportion to its size in the population. * Pros * Very representative of the population * Cons * Not good w ith heterogeneous populations * Disproportionate samples stratified samples in which elements sharing a characteristic are under-represented or over-represented. * Pros * When the sample size is besides small, can be used to increase it easily. * Cons * May not be representative of the population if burthen factor is not used. Cluster samples the sampling frame initially consists of clusters of elements * Pros * Used when no list of elements exists and to create one would be too expensive. * Reduces sector work costs * Cons * There is greater imprecision. Samples are not representative of population. * Non-probability samples types, pros and cons * Each element has an unknown probability of being included in the sample * Types * purposive samples when a researcher exercises considerable discretion over what observations to study. * Pros * Can learn more from thoughtfully selected unusual cases. Cons * Not accurately representative of population. * Convenience sample elements ar e included because they are convenient and easy for the research to select * Pros * Convenience * Large numbers easy to get * Cons * Unknown accuracy * Quota sample elements are sampled in proportioned to their representation in the population. * Pros * Similar to proportionate sampling, but subjects chosen purposefully. * Cons * Selection bias * Snowball sample respondents are used to identify other persons who might qualify for inclusion into the sample * Pros Good for relatively selective and rare populations * Relationship between samples and statistical inferences * Statistical inferences is the mathematical theory and techniques for making conjunctures about the unknown characteristics of the population based on samples. Making inferences about a population. * Trying to define more clearly what supportable actor * Samples provide an estimate of population attributes and may be off from the true population parameter. The difference is the level of precision lost. * 3 types of errors in inference judge values or sampling error * Expected value is the average value of a sample statistic based on repeated samples of the population. * Sampling error is the difference between a sample estimate and a corresponding population parameter that arises because only a portion of the population is observed * exemplification errors * The standard deviation or measure of a variability or dispersion of a sampling distribution * Provides a numerical indication of the variation in sample estimates * Sampling distributions. A theoretical non-observed distribution of sample statistics calculated on samples on size N that, if known, permits the calculation of confidence intervals and the test of statistical hypothesis * Describes the mean, variation and shape of the distribution that is based on an independently and randomly drawn population. * It allows researchers to calculate the probability that sample statistics fall at heart certain distances of the population parame ter. * Sampling error * the difference between a sample estimate and a corresponding population parameter that arises because only a portion of the population is observed * Standard error The standard deviation or measure of a variability or dispersion of a sampling distribution * Provides a numerical indication of the variation in sample estimates * Confidence * How much error this is in a sample. The degree of belief or probability that an estimate range of values includes or covers population parameter. * Sample distribution * Describes the mean, variation and shape of the distribution that is based on an independently and randomly drawn population. * Sample size. * 100 (11% +/-) * 600 (5% +/-) * 1000 (4% +/-) * 1500 (3% +/-) 4000 (2% +/-) Observations * Terms * Quantitative vs qualitative data * Quantitative data involves a large amount of data and its involves numeric manipulation * Qualitative data involves small number of cases, more in depth and it relies on quotations, comm ents, anecdotes and other written evidence to support arguments * Both assay to explain trends or patterns through systematically collected data. * Data collection, how do we contain the best way, characteristics of * How to choose the best way * Depends on the question * Depends on the sample Depends on which constitutes the best measures, validity of the measurements that a particular method will allow. * Depends on cost and availability, some are more observable than others, some less expensive. * Depends on the reactivity to the collection by the population. * Consider ethical implications. * Characteristics * Primary and secondary data * IRB, what role it plays and the significance of it * Institutional review board, a must for any test involving human subjects. * It is guided by 3 principles respect for persons, beneficence and justice. The role it plays s to ensure that all research conducted will not harm any individuals, recognise that they are autonomous and there is dis tribution of benefits to participants. To ensure that no ethical boundaries are crossed. * Its significance is that it has removed all unethical research to be done, but this limits the way data is collected. Thus researchers must consider the benefits vs the burden of the research. * Observation, types and pros and cons basic distinction is direct and indirect. * Direct * Allows researchers to view things in natural setting more often than laboratory. Field study or ethnography. Observation in lab gives more control over environment * Pros * Natural settings allow people to act normally, increases validity * Researchers can observe for longer periods of time * Lab can give more control. * Cons * Lab can also mean that subjects know they are being observed and thus alter behaviour, low validity * Natural setting cannot control external effects and variables. * Indirect * Observation of physical traces of behaviour, essentially detective work. Inferences are made based on physical traces * Two types of measures * Erosion Created by selective collapse on some material. Looking at what has been eroded or removed, looking at what is left. * Accretion * Measures a phenomenon a manifested through the deposition and accumulation of materials. perceive what has built up. * Pros * It raises less ethical issues than direct * Some materials or traces of them are more/less durable than other, making them more/less easy to measure, depending on the method. * Less obtrusive, much cheaper than alternatives * Cons * There are many threats to validity, prone to measurement problems * Can be difficult to make strong inferences * Participant Most field studies involve this, proverbial fly on the wall. Observing people for long periods of time. Assume a role or identity within the group. * Pros * Gain intricate nark into the group through informants * Natural setting * Observe for long periods so changes in behaviour can be studied * Has a degree of accuracy and completenes s that other methods cannot provide. * Cons * It is not viable for every question, some things are just unobservable, like voting * Lack of control over the environment, inability to discriminate factors * May be invalid or biased, going native.Becoming part of the environment, perceived biased. * Difficulties with replication of study * Non participant * Same as direct. * Overt * Participants are informed of the investigators presence and intentions * Covert * Investigators presence is hidden or undisclosed. * Structured * Investigator looks for and systematically records the incidence of specific behaviours * Unstructured * All behaviour is considered relevant, at least(prenominal) at first, and recorded. * Ethical issues and how to avoid * Negative repercussions from associating with researcher because of the researchers sponsors, nationality or outsider status. Invasion of privacy * Stress during research interaction * revealing of behaviour or information to the researcher resulting in harm to the observed during or after the study. * How to avoid ethical proofreading * Assume everything and all identities will be discovered * Look at actual words in manuscript * When describing potentially unflattering things go from general to specific * Be general about community at hand * Realise that data and research will be used again * Know what perspective and attitude is towards subject * caution subjects multiple times Know study limitations and holdment are in advance * Have other people edit sensitive portions. Document analysis * Types of records, pros and cons of utilization * Two types of records * Running produced by organisations rather than private citizens, carefully stored and easily accessed and is available for long periods of time. * Pros * Low cost in terms of bullion and time. * Accessibility * Covers more extensive period in time. * Extensive amounts of records * Many records are digitalised * Cons * At the mercy of those who keep the rec ords, may or may not be biased. Questions on recording keeping practices, may not be unplowed properly. * Episodic records that are produced and preserved in a more casual, personal and accidental manner. Diaries and memoirs. Important to political historians. * Pros * Used to illuminate phenomena rather than generate large sample * Provides different perspectives on certain phenomena. * Use qualitatively. * Cons * Gaining access to occasional(a) records can be difficult, locating suitable materials is the most time consuming aspect of data collection * Many are not digitalised. Content analysis, procedures, pros and cons, intercoder reliableness * Refers to the use of excerpts, quotes, and examples from recorded documents to support and observation. * Can be both qualitative and quantitative in nature. * Procedures * Decide on appropriate sample, what materials to include in the analysis. * shape the recording or coding units, decide what is actually going to be measured. * Choos e categories of content that are going to be measured, deciding the recording unit. How to measure what you want. grave words? Devise a system of enumeration for the content being coded, a numeric system based on what is being coded. Code for number of times X appears. * Pros * Gives researchers access to subjects that would otherwise be difficult to attain. * Raw data are usually nonreactive, no undesired influences on behaviour. * pen records like newspapers have existed over long periods in time * They can be easily attained * It often enables us to increase sample size above what would be possible though either interviews or direct observation . * The cost of keeping records are borne by the keepers, it is low cost for those using them. Cons * Selective survival, record keepers may not preserve all pertinent materials, only selectively. Gaps may exist * Incompleteness. Gaps may exist due to fires losses of other types * Content may be biased. May be incomplete, selectively pre served, inaccurate or falsified * Unavailable to researchers because they are classified. * They lack a standard format because it is kept by different people. * Intercoder reliability * Refers to when two or more coders, using the same procedures, agree on how the content is analysed.The more times the coders make the same conclusions the same way, the more claims can be made. * Written records, pros and cons * Pros * Can be used when other means like direct observation or interviews are not possible. * Able to use for large scale collective behaviour, cannot possibly interview all. * Raises fewer ethical issues than observation or interviewing. * No risk to individuals as long as they are not identified in records. * Cheaper than other forms. * Not affected by time or history, what is recorded cannot be changed. * Cons * Gaining access may be difficult, classified Records not kept properly, or purposefully changed Survey research and interviews * definition and difference * survey s are a method of data collection that acts as an alternative to experiments or simulations. * Instead of manipulating an independent variable to view its effects, survey design examines the relationship between variables, better at establishing correlation rather than causation. * Types of surveys, pros and cons, * Personal, face to face * High cost * High to specialty completion rate * Potentially high sample congruence * Long to medium length * High data processing cost * Telephone median(a) cost * Medium completion rate * Medium sample congruence * Medium to short length * High to low data processing cost * Mail * Low cost * Low completion rate * Medium sample congruence * Medium to short length * Medium data processing costs * Email * Low cost * Depends but low completion rate * Low sample congruence * Medium to short length * High to low data processing costs * Internet * Low costs * Depends but low completion rate * Low sample congruence * Medium to short length * High to l ow data processing costs * gathering administration * Very low costs * High once group is convened completion rate Depends on group selection process, sample congruence * Variable length * High to low data processing costs * Drop off/pick up. * Very low costs * Low completion rate * Low sample congruence * Short length * Low data processing costs. * Completion and response rates, significance of * Refers to the proportion of persons initially contacted who actually participate. * When the proportion of the persons contacted who actually participate is too low, the ability to make statistical inferences about the population is limited * too little responses, cannot make inferences. * Cost * Time and money. Have to balance between costs and completion rate. * Data processing * Answers of the surveys still have to be tabulated. All data need to be coded in a way that a computer can process them. * Problem with open ended questions. Have to be transcribed and coded. * A major reason f or adopting mesh and telephone surveys. * Sample-population congruence * Refers to how well the sample subjects represent the population from which they are drawn * Biases can enter through the initial selection of respondents or through incomplete responses. * The closer the congruence, the more representative the sample, higher validity. Length * Too long and respondents lose interest or start answering without care, get distracted. * Too short and not enough data is collected. * Well motivated participants can help with the problem. * Response quality * Cannot take the responses at face value. * Participants may not have the same interests or familiarity with certain topics. * People may be reluctant to express their opinions to strangers. * Busy people wont answer truthfully. * audience bias * Occurs when the interviewer influences the respondents answers, may have a larger effect on telephone surveys than in person surveys. Question types and wording, what to be careful for an d why, pros and cons * Close-ended questions * Pros * Easier for people to answer and takes little time * Easier to sort and tabulate data * Sensitive issues are better paired with close ended questions * Cons * Force respondents to choose from a list they may not agree with * Single sided and double sided questions that can affect responses * Single side, agree or disagree with a report * Two sided, gives two alternative statements to choose. Problems of take back versus recognition, can prompt answers that would have otherwise been blank. People dont know the answer but recall when seeing the choice. * Oversimplified and distorted picture of public opinion * Open-ended questions * Pros * Allows respondents to state what they know and think. * Good for situations where likely answers are not known. * Cons * Respondents may respond too much or too little. * Problem with recording answers, tedious and difficult to code, recordations vary as well. * Processing data is time consumin g. * Wording Wording is important, question clarity is vital to get valid responses. Objectivity and clarity * Avoid * Double barrelled questions * Two questions in one. Sometimes participants might not agree with first question but is made to in order to answer the second. * Ambiguous questions * One that contains a concept that is not defined clearly. * Participants may interpret the question wrongly. * Leading questions * Reactive question. Encourages respondents to choose a particular response because the question indicates that the researcher expects it. * Giving what the researcher wants, validity is off. Push polls. * Question order and effects * The order in which questions are presented may influence the reliability and validity of answers. Participants any answer differently or stop when they see certain questions. Can solve response set. * Branching questions * A question what sorts respondents into subgroups and directs them into different parts of the questionnaire * Fi lter questions * A question that screens respondents from inappropriate questions. * Response set * satisfying line responding. * May occur when a series of questions have the same answer choices.Check the first few, then blindly check the rest. * Archives surveys, pros and cons * Existing surveys that have been designed in the past and are readily available to use. * Pros * Very cheap, for those with no access to funding. * Less time is spent designing the surveys. * More reliable and higher quality, widely used thus more reliable. * Well written questions. * Cons * The questions are not what you want. * Interviews, definition, pros and cons. * Interviewing is the act of asking individuals a series of questions and recording their responses.May be face to face or over the phone. * Pros * Sometimes asking questions is the only way * Elites can provide valuable information, but only through interviews. cerebrate interviews. * Can provide more comprehensive and detailed information, rich variety of perspectives. * Excellent form of data collection in exploratory studies. * Cons * Can be difficult to administer * Have to take into account non-verbal cues and be willing to go off topic * Detailed note taking * face to face, strong necessity for interpersonal skills.